Muslims in Europe A Shared Citizenship Transcending the Imposition of Cultural Homogeneity
Shared Citizenship
Though concepts of Citizenship focus on the individual within the polity, yet due to a variety of understandings of the concept, it cannot be treated as a ‘monolith’. However as a legal status, the key for 21st century Europe is to seek to define the rights and responsibilities of citizenship in such a way that Muslims and other minorities feel included rather than excluded that is by addressing basic values or norms of citizenship. In this context the question of the compatibility of European citizenship concept with Islamic values as well as the idea of a new “social contract” has been addressed and validated by people like Ramadan. Whereby it is the forging of a shared identity and overlapping consensus that integrates diverse cultural and religious groups. At the same time the best way to integrate immigrants is to provide a clear route to citizenship, and the sense of being a stakeholder in the country of settlement, rather than blocking access.
In this regard opportunity and ability to participate in public discourse on the question of a future Europe are among others, two fundamentals of ‘democratic citizenship’. Alongside this the spirit of the law should be one that guarantees legal equality and cultural-religious autonomy for a minority community. It should not be used to enforce cultural uniformity but rather to protect individual freedom of choice. In this respect European Islam can be seen as a native European movement, largely the result of a gradual and substantial process of ‘citizenization’ of Muslims residing in Europe, who look forward to the prospect of full rights on an equal footing with other Europeans, with whom they share a common destiny.
Citizenship as a legal status implying certain rights and responsibilities is thus a means of ensuring political participation in the political life of the state. It can be defined as a “principle of equality” and a way of struggle against political, social and cultural exclusion.” Especially an emerging Muslim youth “bulge” should have a sense of empowerment to express their discontent and dissent through peaceful political activism rather than counter-productive alternatives. In addition to this sense of belonging to a political community, there is also the aspect of a cultural community. The acceptance of cultural differences is a means of being part of a common cultural community where one’s culture is considered an element of the common cultural system of the public. Yet at the same time for Europeans, the debate centers not only on what religious, cultural and linguistic aspects of the identity of immigrants are to be supported and tolerated but also those to be resisted.
Therefore, as rightly contended by some the clash is not of Islamic and Western ‘political’ values such as the nature of the state in Europe, or the accommodation of Islamic Shari’a law, rather the clash concerns lifestyles, gender equality, and sexuality. Yet their being value laden concepts means they should not assume center stage in defining citizenship. Thus, though attitudes regarding abortion, homosexuality, gender equality and divorce vary amongst Muslims themselves, overall attitudes no doubt would be seen from the European perspective as greatly more conservative and contradictory to Western norms. At the same time other findings also show that for European Muslims their socio-economic situation is the most pressing factor. The dilemma being, that while Muslims do seek to integrate in the political, civic and economic realms, Europeans seem to insist that Muslims first demonstrate that they have fully assimilated culturally, that is a whole-hearted embrace of Western culture, lifestyles and values.
Further more one also finds that the concept of citizenship varies from state to state. French citizenship for example restricts any other cultural self-identification while UK citizenship recognizes cultural and ethnic diversity. From this perspective as pointed out, France does not grant its Muslim population a true equality of rights when it demands that some elements of Muslim traditional life and culture be abandoned in order for Muslims to enjoy full participation in French life. As some observe political integration is understood as a bilateral relationship, in which the host society must negotiate a consensus respectful of the fundamentals of the minority’s way of life.
In the same vein according to many liberal theories, expressions of religious citizens are acceptable in the public sphere so long as they do not influence formal law-making and are expressed in an appropriate public venue. However Talal Asad does not see the secular public sphere as a neutral, shared space composed of different voices that accept and abide by the same principles or ethics of citizenship. Rather, he defines the private/public divide as embedded in a heterogeneous landscape of power a “hegemonic regime.”
Habermass also speaks of the necessity for secular citizens to learn to live in a post secular society rather than placing the onus of burden on religious citizens, by stating that they (only) in order to come to terms with expectations of democratic citizenship need to adopt a new attitude to a secular environment. Similarly others also understand that Europe must beware of regarding all expressions of religion as signs of fundamentalism, or of unwillingness to adapt and become integrated into European societies. Further adding that greater religiosity is not the same thing as suspicion and intolerance of a secularized European environment; rather, it may create an inner tranquility which promotes tolerance and hence integration.
Political liberalism thus speaks of societies where religious communities are tolerated so long as they respect human and civil rights. The imperative of a shared citizenship is a means to prevent marginalization and alienation of European Muslims so that as some have stated, instead of an integrated, tolerant “Euro-Islam” we will then see the development of a “ghetto-Islam.” Yet in addressing such issues it is important to avoid framing them in a specific context of anti-radicalization/extremism initiatives. Hence today, more than ever there is a need to strengthen cohesion in the diverse European societies, which is also reflected in various reports and studies addressing issues of racism, discrimination, and Islamophobia.
Recommendations
The essence of the discourse and issue of Islam in Europe lies in its being framed in the context of a threat and incompatible counter-narrative which naturally leads to polarizing policy frames and regulations. Thus such a policy frame-work needs to be initiated which challenges this paradigm and is conducive to the reality of a multicentric Europe. State neutrality should mean the preservation of pluralism and tolerance not its erosion. In struggling peacefully to make their voices heard there is a need for Muslims to join with other like minded groups in a collective struggle irrespective of religion or nationality for minority or immigrant rights or for civil liberties.
Such a society needs to be envisioned where common ground is found amid differences, and where the embracing of diversity not its suppression is deemed as the best path to social harmony and peaceful co-existence. European society must initiate, encourage and sustain endeavors to build a narrative consistent with the realities of 21st century Europe. Ramadan and others acknowledge two prerequisites: Muslims must embrace their European identity, and European governments must ease Muslim’s integration by accommodating and institutionalizing their religious needs. Just as the law has developed through time to accommodate the religious needs of Christians and Jews, so it now needs to develop further in order to accommodate the same for members of other religions such as Muslims.
Thus any policy recommendations or potential policy options should focus on the socio-economic, civic and political inclusion of Muslims as a means to fostering a sense of citizenship as well as awareness of their religio-cultural heritage:
• To prevent discrimination on religious/ cultural grounds regarding access to citizenship which should be determined by civic criteria, and whose rights and responsibilities are extended to all.
• Engendering the participation of Muslims in the political community, political decision making and mainstream public life, especially the youth. This requires facilitating representation in government at the local, national and European level. Political parties need to provide political representation for Muslims on social, economic, and political issues. They should not just represent them as Muslims but as members of society with a variety of interests and have a Muslim section that seeks to recruit immigrant-origin citizens. By becoming a more politically active voting bloc, Muslim voters are in a better position to influence the major political parties on a range of significant issues.
• Education for active citizenship (facilitating and encouraging knowledge of the host society’s language, history and institutions).
• Intercultural learning, interfaith dialogue at different levels of society so that the Muslim presence is seen as a source of enrichment for society and not as a problem. This would entail engaging opinion makers e.g. government representatives, politicians, intellectuals/academia, educationists, media personalities, artists, to students, youth organizations and the average citizen. It is also a means of mitigating misperceptions which cause fear and hostility. The aim being to promote diversity and religious pluralism.
• European governments must counter and confront the appeal of far-right populism rather than adding to their voices and avoid any deal-making or coalitions which make them dependent on their parliamentary support. The heightened tensions and fall-out leave no room for such political expediency. European governments need to revisit Article 7 of the current EU treaty which allows the member-states to suspend the voting rights of governments which fail to respect EU principles of democracy, the rule of law and human rights, including the rights of minorities, refugees and immigrants.
• Civil society in Europe is seen as a domain and platform for a meeting space between its Muslim and non-Muslim citizens and represents a mediating space for debate and discourse on democratic values, mutual respect and tolerance. There would be working groups addressing issues such as human rights, gender, education, radicalization, root causes of terrorism, citizenship and faith and state.
• Develop initiatives where Muslims are engaged in mainstream social issues and not only engaged in dialogue regarding Islamic issues. To include Muslim groups in all public events in which other religious and ethnic groups participate, to enjoin on them to contribute to society. A means for this is cross-cultural civil society organizations. Also bearing in mind that Gramsci viewed civil society as the site for problem-solving. The key is a bottom-up approach, interaction at the grassroots level so to speak and not just experts and intellectuals engaged in dialogue. Thus Muslims themselves need to be involved in the issues of society as a whole.
• Public discourse should focus on dialogue between Muslim communities and policy-making authorities so that one sees some sort of impact on the political agenda. Engaging political decision makers is the key to political action, public awareness and molding public opinion.
• Engaging with Muslim leaders and organizations who need to provide a vision for their community and bridge the gap between community especially youth and society as a whole. This leadership should be representative of both those raised in European societies and those from the Muslim world. It has an important role in molding the identity, religious orientation and cultural vision of European Muslims. By working to empower their communities (educationally, politically and economically) and engaging with mainstream society they must ensure a moving away from isolationist tendencies or ‘ghetto mentality’ which leads to alienation.
• Governments need to avail of and take into account the capacity of religious communities to foster peace, co-operation, tolerance, and solidarity. The effectiveness of any policy making depends on the active and direct involvement of Muslim communities through representative organisations in the process.
• Greater support and funding for community development projects, the aim being the working together and greater interaction of different ethnic and religious groups especially the youth. Specifically bringing together young professionals of different cultural backgrounds to serve as role models for the youth.
• Promotion, funding and implementation of social inclusion policies which target issues of poverty, income, employment/access to the labor market, education and early school-leaving. Such policies should also address the phenomena of “parallel societies” and “ghettos” which contribute to the fear and resentment of minorities.
• To ensure application of legislation against discrimination in employment, (through equal opportunities, provision of training) at the workplace (making cultural and religious allowances in the workplace), and in housing. Integration can only be facilitated when there are effective measures countering discrimination and promoting diversity in the workplace.
• Recognition of Muslim holidays, further provision of Islamic instruction in public schools, facilitating provision of state funding for Islamic schools. Thus governments should provide Muslims the same access to public resources as other faith groups. Steps taken to accommodate Muslims should not be reversed.
• The media have an important role and moral and social obligation to combat intolerance, prejudice and discrimination. For it can be seen that for the majority of non-Muslims it is through the media that Muslims are known. It can promote a culture of tolerance by creating a better understanding and respect of different religions, cultures and ethnic groups and avoid stereotyping. It should endeavor to be proactive in pushing forward the goals of religious pluralism, and cultural diversity.
• The media industry needs to develop and implement programs for better coverage of Muslims and their representation in the industry/ mainstream media( through presenters, producers, writers) and be more balanced in their reporting. It needs to evaluate the giving of space to minority extremist voices from both sides. European Muslims should also be facilitated to create their own media networks.
• Both decision-makers and media professionals should seek engagement with minority media outlets. Similarly in times of crisis policy makers can play an important role in limiting the negative social fall-out resulting from such situations. There is also a need for closer and more regular interaction between the mainstream media in Europe, the minority media in Europe and the country-of origin media.
• Further in a multicultural and pluralistic society the education system plays a crucial role to safeguard against xenophobia and racism. Resources could be developed for introducing Islam and Muslim culture in related curriculum as well as the introduction of languages such as Arabic, Urdu or Turkish within the mainstream curriculum. Ignorance creates fear and hatred leading to demonization of a people. There should also be greater induction of teachers of different cultural backgrounds. In essence education and youth policies go hand in hand.
• Review and revise educational syllabi and textbooks at all levels particularly in history, philosophy, humanities and the social sciences, with the aim of presenting a balanced view of other cultures and civilizations, addressing stereotypes and misperceptions particularly regarding Islam. Recent historical literature also sees an attempt to review the narrative of conflicting cultures.
• Ensure the application of existing legislation on discrimination, racism, intolerance, incitement to hatred on the basis of religion and religious freedom.
• To eliminate any discrimination on religious grounds in access to education (i.e. allow hijabs and burqas). Governments should revise and repeal existing legislation on prohibition of religious clothing and symbols. It should be seen whether any individual e.g. teacher’s conduct actually infringes neutrality rather than merely their wearing of a certain type of clothing.
• Focus on issues related to Muslim women e.g. women with headscarves are among the most vulnerable groups regarding discrimination in employment and housing and they are underrepresented in the political sphere.
• Despite the genuine concern of terrorism and security threats, policy makers need to move beyond viewing any initiatives or projects only in terms of their counter terrorism and de-radicalization potential when the aim is to foster stronger bonds of trust. As someone quoted “there is more money in anti-radicalization than there is in intercultural dialogue.
• The events of Norway and the riots in England are a wake up call for European governments and policy makers to urgently address the fissures within their societies as a whole. Whether economically with an increasing gap between rich and poor, a marginalized and alienated low-income class, or socio-culturally through increasing intolerance, prejudice, demonization of Muslims, and erosion of values.